The History of Firearms Identifacation
The following paper was
published in the Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
Journal, 30th Anniversary Issue, Volume 31 Number 3, Summer
1999.
Reprinted here
with permission of the author, James E. Hamby.
By: James E. Hamby, M.A.,
Indianapolis-Marion County Forensic Services Agency, Indianapolis, IN 46204
and James W Thorpe, Ph.D., Forensic Science Unit, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, Scotland GI 1XW
Key
Words: history, firearms identification
ABSTRACT
The history of how the
science of firearm and toolmark identification has evolved over the past 165
years is extremely interesting to many forensic scientists performing duties
as firearm and toolmark examiners. It was thought that a study of this
history would be of value for those examiners that have an interest in this
history. Reference material and literature available to the authors, some of
which was provided by other firearm and toolmark examiners over the past
several years, was researched to provide the data for this article. We are
keenly aware that a considerable amount of additional historical data,
concerning the history of firearm and toolmark identification, exists in
files assembled and maintained by other forensic scientists, especially in
Asia, Europe, the Middle East, Central America, and South America. We would
respectfully request that copies of any historical information that you have
available to you be sent to the authors to allow for future revised
information on this subject.
One of the earliest
references concerning the rifling of firearms is in a book authored by
Harold Peterson wherein he discusses the rifling of firearms by Emperor
Maximilian of Germany between 1493 and 1508. Although some firearms were
rifled - helical grooves in the bore of a firearm barrel to impart rotary
motion to a projectile - the recognition that this rifling was of value
for identifying a fired projectile to the firearm didn’t occur until
late in the l9th century.
In the early part
of this century (1900 — 1930), the science of firearm and toolmark
identification was recognized by numerous judicial (law) systems in
several countries around the world. Legal recognition was due, in part, to
the efforts of several individuals from various countries around the world
that had conducted research and experiments into the identification of
fired projectiles and cartridges cases to the specific firearms. In
researching the exploits of many of these pioneer examiners, one is
extremely thankful for their scientific curiosity as well as their
contributions to our field of science.
In the middle part
of this century (1930 - 1970), the science of firearm and toolmark
identification continued to evolve. For example, in the United States, the
Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory (SCDL) began operations at
Northwestern University in late 1929 or early 1930, followed by formation
of the Federal Bureau of Identification (FBI) Laboratory in 1932.
Additionally, many other countries also recognized the requirement to
provide this type of forensic analysis and established firearm and
toolmark sections either in existing laboratories or as new laboratories.
Over the next few years, several laboratories were established and
commenced operations, especially in many of the larger cities in Canada,
the United Kingdom, the United States and in Europe.
The effort of the
individuals involved in firearm and toolmark identification during this
time period should be recognized as they were the individuals instrumental
in both continuing the development of the science as well as gaining
public and legal acceptance of the science. The misuse of firearms in
criminal cases, especially in the United Stares, greatly increased in the
1960’s. In recognition of the need to exchange information and promote
continuing scientific research in the field of firearm and toolmark
identification, thirty-six individuals met in Chicago, Illinois in
February 1969, and organized the Association of Firearm and Toolmark
Examiners (AFTE).
In the last part of
this century (1970 — 1999), the science of firearms and toolmark
identification has continued to evolve with a greater number of forensic
scientists being employed as firearm and tool-mark examiners around the
world. Many of these examiners continue to conduct research and
experimentation into the various aspects of our field and have published
their findings in many of the leading forensic publications listed below.
The science has greatly benefited from the numerous technological advances
that have occurred during this time period. These advances include
innovations in one of the primary tools of the firearm and toolmark
examiner — the binocular comparison microscopes. Many of the current
comparison microscopes have been equipped with photomicrography and closed
circuit television (CCT) units, which allow for direct viewing or instant
digital documentation. One of the authors (JEW) remembers that when he
entered the field to begin training, the primary comparison microscopes
available for his use was monocular, without the benefit of a movable
centerline, and the bullet images reversed.
The most
significant advances during this period include the tremendous growth,
popularity, and relatively inexpensive cost of computers. The ability to
fully utilize the vast potential of computers has allowed science overall,
and forensic science more specifically, to take full advantage in
development of several useful ‘tools’ for use within the laboratory.
The ongoing development of computers has provided the firearms and
toolmark examiner with such useful equipment as Drugfire and IBIS Systems.
Using advanced computer technology, these two systems allow for the
capturing of digital images of fired bullets and cartridge casings which
are then analyzed to provide the examiner with a list of possible ‘hits’
for examination using a comparison microscope. This amazing technology,
unheard of just a few years ago, provides the examiner with the
opportunity to search for possible identifications on fired evidence
bullets and cartridge cases in the laboratory as well as at other
laboratories who are connected on the system. A current study is underway,
in the United States, to identify the possibility of interconnecting both
Drugfire and IBIS into the National Integrated Ballistics Identification
Network (NIBIN).
1835—1899
The earliest event
involving a firearms identification case that we have been able to locate
occurred in 1835 in the City of London, England. A homeowner was shot and
killed and the servant suspected of the crime. A Mr. Henry Goddard (no
relation to Calvin Goddard of later firearms identification historical
note), a Bow Street Runner (an early police force within the City of
London), thoroughly investigated the case. Goddard was able to identify
the mold mark — the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten
lead — on the fired projectile (ball). He also examined the paper patch
— the paper patch provides a seal between the ball and gunpowder in
blackpowder firearms — and was able to identify it as having been torn
from a newspaper that was found in the room of the servant. Goddard’s
careful observations and subsequent examination of the physical evidence
from the crime scene were instrumental in bringing the guilty party to
justice.
In 1852, a firearms
related case examination occurred when the sheriff (title for county law
enforcement official in the United States) in the State of Oregon (USA)
was asked to determine whether the hole in a homicide victim’s shirt was
caused by either a bullet hole or tear. The sheriff, using the suspect
firearm and victim’s shirt, con-ducted experiments by test firing the
weapon into the shirt. The sheriff, as a result of his experiments,
testified in court that the hole in the shirt was from a gunshot and nor a
tear The suspect was convicted and hanged for murder.
In Paris, France in
1857, a Monsieur Noilles published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies ParArmes
a Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made by
small firearms.
One of the earliest
recorded cases involving a simple firearms identification occurred in
1863, during the United States Civil War, when Confederate General
Stonewall Jackson was fatally wounded on the battlefield. When the fatal
bullet was removed from his body, a simple identification of the bullet
which involved examination of both the caliber and bullet shape,
determined that the bullet could only have been fifed by one of his own
men. The projectile was identified as a 67 caliber ball projectile typical
of those used by his own forces such as Hill’s Division of the
Confederate Army while it was also known that the Union forces used the 58
caliber minie ball projectile.
A year later, in
1864, Union General John Sedgwick, was killed in battle by a single
projectile fired by a Confederate sniper from an estimated distance of 800
yards. When the fatal bullet was removed from his body, an identification
of the fatal bullet was made based on both the caliber and hexagonal shape
of the bullet. It was determined that this particular caliber and shape of
bullet was consistent with the Whitworth rifles that had been imported
from England by the Confederate forces for sniping purposes.
In 1876, a Georgia
State (USA) Court allowed a witness, who was experienced in the use of
firearms, to provide expert testimony concerning the amount of time that
had elapsed since a gun was last fired.
A Minnesota State
(USA) Court, in 1879, used the services of a qualified gunsmith to examine
a fatal bullet in conjunction with two suspect revolvers. His examination
of the two revolvers revealed that one of the revolvers had actual rifling
marks while the other revolver only had false rifling marks at the muzzle.
His examination of the two revolvers, and his careful examination of the
marks on the fatal bullet, allowed him to testify that the bullet could
not have been fired from the revolver with rifling marks but might have
well been fired from the other revolver.
Another case
involving testimony concerning the time elapsed since the gun was last
fired occurred in a Texas State (USA) Court in 1883. The court allowed an
individual to provide expert testimony on the elapsed time since the
evidence firearm was last fired. His testimony was based on his
examination of the fired wadding (paper patch), the percussion cap (a
small metallic cup containing a primary explosive used to ignite the
muzzle charge in muzzle loading firearms), and the barrel of the firearm.
In 1885, in Lyon, France,
a study tided “Etudes Medico-Legales des Plaies Entrée Par Coups de
Revolver” (Medico-Legal Study of Wounds of Entry Caused by Revolver
Bullets) was published by the Poix. Travail du Laboratorie du
MedicineLegale de Lyon. This is one of the first recorded studies that
involved examination and reporting on wounds caused by revolver bullets
and represented information of value to both the medical field and the
forensic field of firearms identification.
In 1889, Mr. A.
Lacassogne of Lyon, France, published a paper tided “La Deformation Des
Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5,
Archives de l’Antropologie Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.
One of the first
recorded instances of someone being permitted to provide testimony to the
effects of firing a pistol at human hair and a paper target occurred in a
Kansas State (USA) Court in 1896. The court permitted the witness,
experienced in the use of firearms, to conduct various experiments using
the evidence pistol and similar cartridges in an attempt to determine the
effect on firing at hair and targets at close distances. The witness, as a
result of his experiments, was then allowed to provide testimony as to the
results of his experiments.
In 1898, this type of
analysis was further expanded when in Paris, France, a Mr. Corin published
an article titled “La Determination de La Distance a’Laguelle un Coup
de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (Determination of the distance at which a shot
has been discharged from a firearm).
1900—1930
In 1900, in
Buffalo, New York (USA), a very significant article tided “The Missile
and the Weapon” was published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical
Journal. The article, written by Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, dealt with a
variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove markings
(impressions on the bearing surface of the bullet caused by the rifling
process) are made on bullets. He also discussed the examination of
gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place
over rime after the weapon is fired. Dr. Hall, while not following up on
the research that he conducted for the article, did perform a valuable
service as he alerted others to the potential for evaluating markings
found on fired bullets.
Two years later, in
1902, a Massachusetts State (USA) Court allowed an individual to provide
expert testimony on the effects of rifling and other markings in a gun
barrel upon bullets fired through the barrel.
In 1903, in London,
England, Mr. E. J. Churchill (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a
firearms examiner for the United Kingdom) provided testimony as to some
experimentation that he had performed involving the distance at which a
shot had been fired into a human skull. Mrs. Camille Holland was shot and
killed in Essex, England in 1899. Her body was recovered and examined to
determine cause of death. It was determined that she had been shot at a
close range with a 32 calibre revolver. E. J. Churchill, using a similar
revolver and the same type of ammunition, fired test shots into sheep’s
skulls at varying distances. He examined the skull of the victim in
conjunction with the damage observed in the sheep’s skulls and provided
testimony in court that, in his opinion, the fatal shot was fired from a
revolver at between 6 and 12 inches. The accused was convicted and hanged.
Three years later,
in 1905, in Leipzig, Germany, a Mr. Kockel published an article titled “Zur
Sachverstandigen Beurteilung Von Geschossen” (The Expert Examination of
Fired Bullets) in the Kriminalfallen, Leipzig.
In 1907, in
Brownsville, Texas (USA), several soldiers from a nearby US Army Infantry
Regiment were allegedly involved in a riot (later referred to in the
popular press as the Affray at Brownsville) in the small Texas town of
Brownsville. During the hours of darkness, and during a ten-minute period,
the soldiers were alleged to have fired some 150 to 200 shots from their
assigned rifles throughout the entire town. The facts surrounding the ‘riot’
are very much in question and although the case was supposedly
investigated, it was never determined if any soldier actually participated
in the riot. The importance of this event for the field of firearms
identification is that it was the first time that a serious study was
undertaken to attempt and identify fired cartridge cases to specific
rifles and represents one of the first recorded examinations of fired
cartridge cases. Following the alleged riot, some townspeople ‘found’
in a back alley of the town a grand total of 39 fired 30-caliber cartridge
cases and some fired bullets. These items, and numerous rifles belonging
to three infantry companies, were collected and sent to the staff of
Frankfort Arsenal for their examination. The arsenal staff studied the
submitted evidence and then devised a method of attempting to identify the
fired cartridge casings to the submitted rifles. The arsenal staff, after
spending a lengthy period of time test firing the rifles, was able to
specifically identify 33 of the fired cartridge casings as having been
fired from four of the submitted rifles. The remaining six cartridge
casings could not be associated with any of the submitted rifles and no
conclusions were reached concerning any of the fired bullet evidence. A
report titled “Study of the Fired Bullets and Shells in Brownsville,
Texas, Riot” was published in 1907 by the US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, as part of the Annual Report of the Chief of Ordnance, US
Army. This exhaustive examination of evidence, and subsequent written
report, is the first recorded instance of fired cartridge casings being
evaluated as evidence and represents a milestone in firearms
identification history.
A court case
involving both expert testimony and experimentation as concerns the
distance a firearm was from the target occurred in a Wisconsin State (USA)
Court in 1908. The trial judge allowed an individual to provide expert
testimony on his observation of the presence and/or absence of gunpowder
at various distances.
Another very
significant milestone in firearms identification history occurred when
starting in 1912, in Paris, France, Professor V. Balthazard devised a
series of procedures to identify fired bullets to the firearms from which
they were fired. Professor Balthazard identified the bullets to the
suspected firearm by taking an elaborate series of photographs of test
fired bullets from the firearm as well as evidence bullets. The
photographs included the rifled areas of each land and groove. The
photographs were then carefully enlarged and the observed markings
compared by Balthazard and his staff. Balthazard also applied these same
specialized photographic techniques to the examination and identification
of cartridge casings using firing pin, breech face, ejector and extractor
marks. In 1909, Balthazard published a paper titled “Identification des
Projectiles de Revolver en Plomb Nu” (Identification of Revolver
Projectiles of Plain Lead) in Volume 148 of Comptes Rendus de 1’
Academie des Sciences.
In 1915, in New
York State (USA), the notorious ‘Stielow’ case occurred, which caused
a gross miscarriage of justice. Stielow, an illiterate tenant framer was
accused of shooting and killing his employer and the employer’s
housekeeper. The woman, after being shot, had run from the employer’s
house and was found dead near the door of Stielow’s house. The local
authorities, unused to investigating homicides in their rural area,
allowed the crime scene to be trampled by the curious crowd, which
destroyed most of the evidence. The authorities hired an alleged firearms
examiner to examine the evidence who promptly stated that a revolver found
in Stielow’s house had fired the fatal bullets. He based his opinion on
nine abnormal scratches that he supposedly observed during his examination
of the bullets. Stielow was sentenced to death for the murders and sent to
the state prison to await execution. The Governor of the State, who was
unsatisfied with the entire investigation, ordered a special investigation
and engaged individuals to completely reinvestigate the case. Assigned to
the case was Mr. Charles E. Waite, a special investigator for the New York
Attorney General’s Office. Waite, and a few other individuals,
thoroughly investigated the case, which included examination of the
firearms evidence and the fatal bullets. Waite, in conjunction with Dr.
Max Poser, a microscopy expert with Bausch & Lomb, microscopically
examined the fatal bullets in conjunction with bullets test fired from
Stielow’s revolver and determined that Stielow’s revolver could nor
have been used to fired the fatal bullets. This evidence, in conjunction
with other aspects of the investigation, provided sufficient evidence to
allow the Governor to pardon Stielow and release him from prison.
In 1917, Dr. Sydney
Smith (later Sir Sydney Smith) was offered the position as Principal
Medico-Legal Expert in Cairo. Egypt, after the incumbent, Dr. Hamilton,
passed away. Dr. Smith arrived in Egypt and immediately sought to have a
series of laboratories attached exclusively to his operation to facilitate
his duties. All of the analyses and other scientific activities were,
until that time, provided either in the Government analytical laboratories
or in the School of Medicine. Mr. Arthur Lucas at the Government
Laboratory was also interested in the application of science to
medico-legal problems that included the examination of firearms and
related evidence. Smith was involved in a substantial number of murder
investigations over the next several years — many involving the
examination of fired bullets and cartridge casings. He began to slowly
collect information relative to the firearms evidence recovered from
various crime scenes with the hope that it might one day lead to the
identification of the criminals through the weapons they used.
In 1920, two
factory workers carrying the factory payroll were shot and killed in
Dedham, Massachusetts (USA). The trial of the two accused murders, Nicola
Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti started in summer of 1921. The case received
worldwide publicity due to the political activities of the accused. At the
trial, four ‘experts’ presented firearms related evidence — two for
the prosecution and two for the defense. The firearms identification
experts for both prosecution and defense were at odds with each other
throughout the trial. The two prosecution examiners provided testimony
linking the firearms evidence to the suspects firearms while the defense
experts stated that the bullets and cartridge casings were nor fired by
the suspects firearms. Based on the testimony of the firearms examiners,
and other testimony presented to the court, the two suspects were
convicted of murder and executed some seven years later. Many individuals
objected to both the trial and the execution as they felt that Sacco and
Vanzetti had been framed for their political views and that firearms
evidence was unreliable.
In 1921, a court in
the State of Oregon (USA) allowed a Sheriff to provide expert testimony
involving the identification of a fired cartridge case to the evidence
rifle. The Sheriff was able to explain and then demonstrate to the court
how a small flaw in the breechblock of the rifle left an identifiable mark
on the rim of the ejected cartridge case that had been fired in the rifle.
In 1921, in San
Paulo, Brazil, two articles dealing with wounds were published. Mr. Jorge
T. Filho published an article titled “Da Diagnose da Distancia nos Tiros
de Projecteis Multiplos — Chumbo de Caca” (Estimation of distance from
which a bullet was fired) while another thesis (author not identified) was
titled “Orificio de Hntrada de Projecteis de Revolver — Estudo
experimental das zonas de contorno nos tiros proximos” (Entrance wounds
and Powder Markings). In the same year, in Washington, D.C., Mr. Louis B.
Wilson published an article titled “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in
Relation to Wound Effects” in The Military Surgeon, Washington,
September 1921.
In 1922, several
issues concerning firearms identification occurred:
A court in the
State of Missouri (USA) permitted an individual to qualify and provide
expert testimony concerning exactly how far a certain firearm would eject
a fired cartridge case.
In Denver, Colorado
(USA), Mr. C. Williams wrote an article titled “Fingerprints on Bullets”
which appeared in Outdoor Life magazine, Volume 49, pages 329-331.
In Ithaca, New York
(USA), Mr. Emile Monnin Chamot authored a 61 page monograph titled “The
Microscopy of Small Arms Primers”.
In Paris, France,
Professor Balthazard wrote an article titled “Identification des
Projectiles: Perfectionnement de la Technique” (Identification of
Projectiles: Perfection of the Technique) which appeared in Annales de
Medicine Legale, Volume 2, January 1922, pages 345-250. In the same issue,
pages 30-32, Mr. Georgiades wrote an article tided “Une Novelle Methode
pour Determiner l’Identite des Projectiles” (A new method for
determination of the identity of projectiles).
In Tucson, Arizona,
Paul V. Hadley was tried for attempted murder and murder. Hadley had
accepted a ride with an elderly couple and while riding in their
automobile, was alleged to have shot both, seriously wounding the man and
killing the wife. He was subsequently arrested and found in possession of
a 32 calibre Mauser pistol and several cartridges. A. J. Eddy was
requested by the prosecuting attorney to determine if the fatal bullets
could be identified as having been fired by the suspect’s firearm. Eddy,
a practicing attorney, had previously conducted research and
experimentation into the area of bullet identification and he was fairly
certain that a bullet fired from a gun carried distinctive markings. With
the assistance of a local photographer, Eddy conducted numerous tests on
the suspect murder weapon as well as several other 32 calibre firearms.
The Mauser pistol was test fired, using ammunition seized from Hadley, and
the test and fatal bullets were photographed by reversing the lens of the
camera. Eddy conducted his experiments over a period of three months and
was called to court to testify as to the results of his research. He
provided extensive testimony concerning the elaborate tests that he had
conducted and attempted to prove to the jury that each pistol left its own
distinctive characteristics markings on bullets. The defense attorney’s
argued that Eddy wasn’t an expert but the judge overruled their request
taking the position that Eddy was merely showing the results of his
exhaustive research and experimentation. The judge characterized Eddy’s
testimony as being that of a “semi-expert” and allowed him to testify.
Hadley was convicted, in large part to Eddy’s testimony, and the case
was appealed to the Arizona Supreme Court. The court, after careful
deliberation, rendered a historic and momentous decision. The court upheld
the lower court, thus recognizing ballistics evidence as valid and
admissible. This ruling appears to be the first time that a State Supreme
Court in the United States had done so.
In 1923, the court
cases and literature continued at a fast pace:
Among the court
cases was an Oregon State (USA) case where the judge allowed a pistol
expert to testify that the evidence bullets were fired in a Colt Army
Special revolver similar to the firearm owned by the defendant.
In a Washington, DC
(USA) court, the court decided that expert testimony that was provided
concerning that the evidence bullet was fired from the defendant’s
pistol was competent.
In the literature,
a Mr. R. E. Herrick published an article titled “Ballistics
Jurisprudence” in Arms and Man, Volume 70, Number 17, May 1923.
In Paris, France,
three articles appeared in the journal “Annales de Medicine Legale”.
The first article was by Mr. P. Chavigny and Mr. E. Gelma and titled “Les
Fissures du Crane: Coups de Feu a Courte Distance — Revolver”
(Fissures of the skull by revolver bullets at short range”, Volume 3,
pages 345-352. Another article in the same journal was by Professor
Balthazard and was titled “Perfectionment a la Methode d’Identification
des Projectiles” (Perfecting the method on the identification of
projectiles), pages 6 18-620. A third article was by Mr. DeRechter and Mr.
Mage and titled “Communication sur 1’ Identification des Douilles et
des Projectiles tires” (Communication on the Identification of Fired
Bullets and Shells).
Meanwhile, from
Leipzig, Germany, a Mr. Hulst published an article titled “Bestimmung
der Identitat und Herkunft einer Kugel” (Determining the identity and
the origin of a bullet), Archives fur Kriminologie, page 300.
In London, England,
Arthur Lucas published an article titled “The examination of Firearms
and Projectiles in Forensic Cases” in “The Analyst”. (Note: This is
the same Arthur Lucas who worked in the Government Laboratory in Egypt and
who collaborated with Dr. Sydney Smith)
In a Connecticut
State (USA) Court, a case of some distinction (State v. Harold Israel)
resulted in the prosecuting attorney recommending that the charge of
murder be nolle prosequi (dismissed). His recommendation was due, in large
part, to the opinion of six expert witnesses that testified that the fatal
murder bullet could not have been fired from the pistol of the defendant.
The court record reflects, in some detail, the principals of firearms
identification as known at that time.
In Wisconsin, Dr.
J. Howard Mathews, the Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the
University of Wisconsin, became involved in his first criminal case that
involved the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill an
individual. Due to his involvement in this case, he was then requested to
examine a rifle used in a homicide case. These two cases, followed by
others, caused him to become quite involved in the examination and
identification of firearms related evidence.
In November 1924,
an event occurred in Cairo, Egypt that would lead to the climax of Dr.
Sydney Smith’s five years’ work on forensic ballistics. Sir Lee Stack
Pasha. the Sirdar (Commander-in-Chief) of the Egyptian Army and
Governor-General of the Sudan was shot while being driven through the
streets of Cairo. The Sirdar died the following day from his wounds. Smith
relates that he examined the car, reconstructed the crime scene, and
examined the firearms evidence which consisted of nine cartridge casings
found at the scene and six fired bullets recovered from the victim’s
bodies (the driver and the aide-de-camp were also killed). All of the
fired bullets were 32 calibre designed to be fired from a semi-automatic
pistol. In five of the six bullets, including one used to kill the Sirdar,
a cross-shaped cut had been made on the nose in an attempt to convert them
into expanding bullets. Smith, after a careful examination of all of the
firearms evidence, was able to report that if a suspect firearm were
recovered, he would be able to identify it to the fired components found
at the scene or from the bodies. Due to the severe nature of the crime,
maximum investigative efforts were put forth to determine the identity of
the assassins. Suspects were developed in fairly short order and various
firearms and ammunition submitted to Dr. Smith for his evaluation and
examination. His examination of the submitted evidence, in conjunction
with the items from the crime scene and autopsies, allowed him to
positively identify the firearms as having been used during the shooting.
The eight suspects were charged with murder, or incitement to murder, and
tried in court. The case relied on confessions from the suspects, a police
informer, and scientific examination of the evidence by Dr. Smith.
Obviously, the testimony by Dr. Smith concerning his examination of the
firearms evidence played a very crucial role in the suspects being
convicted of murder. Seven of the eight were executed while the remaining
suspect was sentenced to life imprisonment. Dr. Smith wrote an article
concerning the details of the investigation that appeared in the British
Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he believes that
scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had
its beginning as a result of the publication of his report on the case.
While this claim may be somewhat exaggerated, it is also recognized that
Smith’s efforts were instrumental in furthering the science of firearms
identification.
In 1924, Captain
Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman, a well-known shooter and sports writer,
examined firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff. In his
writings on the subject, he further reports that he became associated with
the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics in 1926 serving as a regional
representative for the western portion of the United States. In a book
authored by Crossman in 1932, he discusses having some 200 cases submitted
to his laboratory for firearms identification work between the initial
case in 1924 and 1932. He continued to provide these same services until
his death. One of the authors (JEH) has a collection of many of the case
notes, reports and invoices rendered by Crossman for his work on many of
the cases he examined during his career. These files, along with a replica
bullet used for demonstrations in court, were presented to the author by
the late Colonel Edward B. ‘Jim’ Crossman (Ned’s son) prior to his
death. Colonel Crossman graduated from the California Institute of
Technology with a Bachelor’s degree in Science and worked with his
father examining firearms related evidence from 1929 until his military
unit was activated in 1941. Colonel Cross-man served over 23 years in the
US Army and retired as Chief of the Weapons Branch for Army Material
Command. Jim Crossman was also a well-known shooter, sports writer for
several publications, a product liability expert in the field of firearms
and ammunition manufacturing, and firearms consultant.
In April 1925, in
New York City, New York (USA), the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was
established by C. E. Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard,
Philip 0. Gravelle and John H. Fisher. The Bureau was formed to provide
firearms identification services throughout the United States as few law
enforcement agencies had the capability to provide this type of service.
Major Goddard was very much a firearms identification pioneer who wrote
and spoke extensively on the subject and was published in numerous
publications. One significant event of particular note is that Gravelle
adapted a comparison microscope for use in the identification of fired
bullets and cartridge cases. This singular act is considered by many to be
a hallmark event in the science of firearms identification. Adapting the
comparison microscope, for use in the examination of fired bullets and
cartridge casings, allowed for a significant increase in the examiner’s
ability to identify matching striae.
In June 1925, the
Saturday Evening Post (then a weekly American general news and articles
magazine) published a two-part series of articles entitled “Finger-printing
Bullets”. The two articles discussed in great detail both the
organization and operation of the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics as well as
the science involved in performing firearms identification examinations.
The articles also discussed in detail the famous Stielow case that Waite
had investigated several years earlier in 1917. As the Post was a very
widely circulated publication, read by a great number of people, these two
articles were very instrumental in informing the general public about both
the science of firearm identification as well as the availability of
services offered by the Bureau.
On February 14, 1929, in
Chicago, Illinois (USA), an event occurred that greatly furthered the
acceptance of firearms identification techniques by authorities in the
United States. This event, referred to as the St. Valentine’s Day (an
American holiday where one buys candy and flowers for their sweetheart)
Massacre, involved the brutal slaying of seven gangsters by a rival
gangster group in the City of Chicago. The incredible public outrage over
these slayings, and the rumors that police officers were possibly
involved, caused local officials to immediately impanel a grand jury (a
judicial process) to investigate the killings. The grand jury foreman, Mr.
B. A. Massee, promptly engaged the services of Calvin H. Goddard of the
Bureau of Forensic Ballistics to examine and report on the firearms
related evidence. Goddard’s careful and concise examination of all the
firearms related evidence; which included fired bullets, pellets, fired
shotgun casings and fired cartridge cases was significant. Goddard was
able to conclusively state that the killers had used one 12-gauge shotgun
and two Thompson submachine guns to commit the killings. He noted that one
of the Thompson’s submachine guns was fired using a 50-round drum
magazine while the other was fired using a 20-round magazine. Due to the
rumors concerning suspected police involvement, all police Thompson
submachine guns were submitted for Goddard to rest fire for comparison
against the crime scene evidence. He was able to state that none of the
police weapons were used and subsequently identified weapons that were
obtained during the search of a suspect’s home.
1930 - 1970
In 1930, as a
result of Goddard’s excellent work on the Sr. Valentine’s Day Massacre
case and the continuing indignation of the public concerning the killings,
the foreman of the grand jury requested that he establish a crime
detection laboratory to serve the citizens of the Chicago, Illinois (USA)
area. The jury foreman, Mr. Massee, who along with other public spirited
citizens stated that they would provide the necessary funds to staff and
equip the facility as no public funds were available. Goddard accepted the
opportunity and became the Director of the Scientific Crime Detection
Laboratory (SCDL) which was affiliated with the Northwestern University
School of Law near Chicago. Goddard remained Director of the SCDL until
leaving in 1934 to form a private firm. Prior to his departure, Goddard
provided scientific training, to include the areas of firearms and
toolmark identification, to numerous individuals who went on to work in
other laboratories around the United States.
In 1932, the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) — the premier federal law
enforcement organization in the United States — established and
organized their laboratory at the direction of then Director J. Edgar
Hoover. The laboratory initially started with one person on staff and has
subsequently grown in size until today it is the largest forensic
laboratory in the United States with a very well deserved reputation
within the law enforcement, judicial, and forensic communities. It is of
note that the person who staffed the FBI Laboratory had received training
from Calvin Goddard at the SCDL.
In 1934. Major Sir
Gerald Burrard wrote a book titled “The Identification of Firearms and
Forensic Ballistics” which was published in London. England. The book
was later published in the United Stares in 1962. In his book, Burrard
discusses many of the early cases that occurred throughout the British
Empire to include those of another pioneer English firearms examiner
(unnamed in the book but known to be Robert Churchill) who Burrard
frequently met in court — for the opposite side. Burrard acknowledges
that he believes a Colonel H. W. Todhunter, C.M.G., a former Chief
Inspector of Small Arms for the British Army, as ‘the pioneer of
firearms identification in this country’. He further acknowledges his
friendship with Colonel Calvin Goddard and Mr. Arthur Lucas.
In 1935, two books
on firearms identification were written and published. One of these books
was titled “Textbook of Firearms Investigation, Identification and
Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers” and
was written by Major (later Major General) Julian S. Hatcher. Major
Hatcher was a very experienced US Army ordnance officer who had spent
nearly twenty years as a pistol and rifle shooter of some distinction. He
had also served in a variety of assignments that involved the design,
manufacturing and testing of ammunition and firearms. Hatcher’s book
received excellent reviews and was quickly adopted by many firearms
examiners throughout the United States. As an aside, one of the authors
has a letter in his files, dated October 26, 1934, addressed to Captain
Ned Crossman from J. S. Hatcher, thanking him for the fine pictures that
he had sent him. These photographs, supplied by Crossman, appeared in
Hatcher’s book.
The second book was
titled “The Identification of Firearms” and written by Jack D. Gunther
and Professor Charles 0. Gunther. Jack Gunther was an attorney and member
of the New York State Bar while Charles Gunther was a Professor of
Mathematics and a reserve Lieutenant Colonel in the US Army Ordnance
Department. Their book provided additional information about the
principles of firearms identification with approximately one-half of the
book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include
reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript. The Gunther’s
discussed the need for the science of firearms identification to utilize
scientific methodology.
In 1935, an
announcement was made concerning the formation of the Missouri Scientific
Crime Detection Laboratory to be directed by a Mr. Thomas N. Lewis. The
announcement further states that Lewis was for many years the research
officer for the Sr. Louis Police Department.
In 1938, the
Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory (SCDL), at Northwestern University,
was bought by the City of Chicago. The equipment was transferred from the
University to the Chicago Police Department and existing laboratory
personnel were offered positions in the new laboratory.
In 1940, the
Indianapolis Police Department established a fully equipped crime
laboratory under the direction of a trained scientist. The IPD crime
laboratory ceased operation on December 31, 1985 and became part of the
Indianapolis-Marion County Forensic Services Agency.
In 1944, John E.
Davis joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its
first criminology laboratory.
In 1947, the State
of Wisconsin established a State Crime Laboratory with Charles M. Wilson
as the Superintendent. Wilson had been associated with Goddard at the SCDL
at Northwestern and was later Director of the Chicago Police Department
Crime Lab.
In 1948, a meeting
titled ‘The First American Medicolegal Congress’ was held in St.
Louis, Missouri. This meeting, a subsequent meeting later in the same
year, and several committee meetings during 1949, was the genesis for the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences to be organized and named in 1950.
Interestingly, two of the papers presented at the initial meeting
concerned firearms identification. One was titled “Firearms Evidence —
Fact and Fiction” and presented by George W. Keenan, Department of
Public Safety, Rochester, New York. The other paper was titled “The
Recovery, Custody, Marking, and Preservation of Physical Evidence and
Standards of Comparison Including Firearms Exhibits” and presented by
Charles M. Wilson, Wisconsin Stare Crime Lab, Madison, Wisconsin. Over a
period of several years meeting participants, especially firearms examiner
practitioners and those interested in the field, would meet in the
evenings and discuss their cases with one another. In the author’s
opinion, these informal meetings became the genesis for the Association of
Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) to be organized 21 years after the
initial AAFS meeting in 1948. Credit and recognition should be given those
individuals who presided at the birth of AFTE.
In 1955, Calvin
Goddard presented an address be-fore the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences meeting in Los Angles, California The tide of his talk was “The
Unexpected in Firearms Identification”. Two days after his presentation,
Goddard passed away. Many firearms examiners, especially in the United
States, are well aware of the significant contributions that Goddard made
to the field of firearm and toolmark identification. He is considered by
many examiners in the US to be the ‘father’ of the science.
In 1957, a complete
revision of Major General Julian S. Hatcher’s textbook “Firearms
Identification, Investigation & Evidence” was published. The revised
book was under the direction of Frank J. Jury, New Jersey State Police
Crime Laboratory and Jac Weller, a Firearms Consultant from Princeton, New
Jersey. The revised book contained substantial new material and updated
much of the original material from the original text.
In 1958, John E.
Davis, an eminent criminalist and Director of the Oakland Police
Department (CA) Criminalistics Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled An
Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the Striagraph”. In his book,
Davis provided excellent information about the examination and
identification of firearms and toolmark evidence. He also discussed, in
great length, his development of a specialized instrument that he named
the ‘Striagraph’. He described the instrument as follows: “the
Striagraph is primarily a measuring, tracing and recording device suited
to the analysis of micro surface-contours, that is, to the detection of
microscopic irregularities in surface smoothness”. Although the
instrument never proved to be successful past the research stage, it was
the forerunner of later technology for scanning the surface of a bullet
using advanced laser and digital imaging techniques.
In 1961, Frances
Russell, a Boston author who was convinced of the innocence of Nicola
Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, arranged to have the firearms evidence
reexamined. He arranged for the services of two men well known in the
firearms community. The two, Frank Jury - formerly a Lieutenant Colonel in
charge of the New Jersey State Police Laboratory, and Jac Weller of the
West Point Museum in New York, had revised Hatcher’s textbook which was
published in 1957. Reexamination of the evidence included test firing the
evidence firearms and comparing the test bullets to the bullet that had
killed the payroll guard. The evidence and test bullets were identified as
having been fired from the same firearm - that belonging to Sacco.
In 1962, Dr. J. H.
Mathews, who had retired from the University of Wisconsin in 1952, after
nearly a 40-year career, published a two-volume set of books titled “Firearms
Identification”. These two books were well received and sold well
throughout the forensic community as they contained extensive reference
materials that had been collected by Dr. Mathews both during the course of
his nearly 40 years in the field of firearms identification and his
subsequent years in retirement. Volume I contained information concerning
the laboratory identification of a firearm, measurements of rifling data
on a wide variety of handguns, and a series of appendices which include
photographs of the firing pin impressions on rim fire cartridges. Volume
II contained several hundred photographs of handguns to assist in their
identification, illustrations of other handguns, and photographs of trade
marks and other identification marks. Of the hundreds of photographs of
firearms that Mathews photographed during his research, many were from his
own collection while others were boa owed from various sources such as
from weapons reference collections of numerous forensic (crime)
laboratories as well as private weapons collections. In 1973, a third
volume of the book was published posthumously as Dr. Mathews had passed
away in April 1970. The final preparation of the manuscript was carried
out by the family of Dr. Mathews’ with the assistance and counsel of
Senior Firearms Examiner Alan Wilimovsky, then of the Wisconsin State
Crime Laboratory in Madison, (now deceased). Volume III contained
additional data on rifling characteristics, notes on less well-known
American revolvers and pistols, several hundred original photographs and
illustrations of firearms, and other reference material.
In 1962, the Office
of the Surgeon General, Department of The United States Army, Washington,
DC, published a book titled “Wound Ballistics”. The book, edited by
Major James C. Beyer, MC (Medical Corps) contained some 833 pages and is
an excellent reference source as it contains an exhaustive study of all
types of wounds. Among the chapters, there are discussions on ballistic
characteristics of wounding agents, the mechanism of wounding, and wound
ballistics and body armor. The book contains a significant amount of
tabulated data gleaned from the research into wound ballistics.
In November 1963, the
President of the United States, John Fitzgerald Kennedy, was assassinated
by being shot to death during a visit to the City of Dallas, Texas.
Shortly after the assassination of Kennedy, the suspected assassin, Lee
Harvey Oswald, is alleged to have shot and killed Officer J. D. Tippit who
was attempting to arrest him. Subsequent to Oswald’s arrest, and while
being transported to a judicial hearing, he was shot and killed by Jack
Ruby in the basement of police headquarters. Analysis of the firearms
evidence in these tragic incidents, excepting the evidence of Ruby
shooting Oswald, figured prominently in the conclusions of the Warren
Commission (a legal commission formed by direction of the United States
Congress to
investigate the assassination). The FBI Laboratory’s Firearms Unit was
responsible for conducting the analysis and examination of the firearms
related evidence as assassination of the president is a federal crime.
Three senior firearms examiners from the FBI Laboratory; Robert A.
Frazier, Cortlandt Cunningham and Charles Killion, examined the evidence
and provided testimony, along with that of Joseph D. Nicol, (now retired)
then Superintendent of the Illinois State Bureau of Criminal
Identification before the Warren Commission. At the conclusion of the
Warren Commission’s lengthy proceedings, a 26 volume report titled “Report
of the Warren Commission on the Assassination of President Kenned/’ was
published by the United States Government Printing Office, and made
available to interested parties. Although the commission’s report
contained a massive amount of data, a number of individuals and groups
then, and even today, regard the report as nothing more than a ‘whitewash’
which was intended to cover up what they believe to be a conspiracy to
assassinate the president. Since the assassination, several authors have
written books espousing various theories about who actually killed
Kennedy. Many of the authors of these books have benefited financially
from their writings on this subject.
In 1963, the
science of firearm and toolmark identification suffered a great loss when
Major General Julian S. Hatcher died at his home at age 75. Hatcher was a
very prolific writer and well known in our field for both his Textbook of
Firearms Identification, Investigation & Evidence (1935) as well as
Hatcher’s Notebook (1947).
In April 1968, Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr., an active civil rights proponent in the United
States, was assassinated during a visit to Memphis, Tennessee. King was
shot and killed while standing on the second floor of a motel (lodging).
Subsequent to the assassination, a high power rifle was found. Partial
latent fingerprints were developed on the rifle by the FBI’s Latent
Print Unit which, after an exhaustive period of some three months of
searching their print card file, were identified to a suspect - James Earl
Ray. The firearms evidence was examined by Robert A. Frazier, a senior
member of the FBI Laboratory’s Firearms Unit, and a report issued. The
report concluded that the recovered evidence cartridge casing “was fired
in and extracted from” the evidence rifle but that “it was not
possible to determine whether or not this bullet was fired from this rifle”.
Ray was arrested some months after the assassination and confessed to
having shot Dr. King. Ray was tried in court and sentenced to life in
prison. He later recanted his confession and explained that the killing
was done by various shadowy factions. As occurred after President Kennedy
was assassinated, numerous individuals wrote and spoke extensively on
their thoughts as to what they thought had-occurred in Memphis.
In June 1968,
Senator Robert Kennedy, the brother of President Kennedy, who while
campaigning for the office of President of the United States was shot and
killed as he was leaving a Los Angeles hotel. During the assassination of
Kennedy, others nearby were wounded by the gunfire. The gunman, Sirhan B.
Sirhan, was captured at the scene of the shooting, tried in court, and
given a life sentence in prison. Examination of the firearms evidence was
performed by Officer DeWayne A. Wolfer (now retired) of the LAPD Crime
Laboratory. As occurred after the assassinations of President Kennedy and
Doctor King, and the murders of Officer Tippit and suspect Lee Harvey
Oswald, a number of individuals, including several ‘experts’ publicly
contended that Sirhan had nor acted alone and that a second firearm was
involved.
In 1969, in recognition
of the potential requirement for an association dealing specifically with
the identification of firearms and toolmarks, thirty-five police and
civilian specialists from throughout the United States and Canada gathered
at the Chicago Police Department Crime Laboratory to discuss formation of
an association. Many of these original participants had informally
gathered for years during annual meetings of the American Academy of
Forensic Sciences (AAFS) and felt the need for an association to address
the requirements of firearms and toolmark examiners. The purpose of the
conference was described by a statement from the program that read “this
meeting is being held to determine
the advisability of
forming an organization of Firearms and Tool Mark Examiners. It is hoped
that the organization will consider future meetings that could be devoted
to the presentation of scientific and technical papers, descriptions of
new techniques and procedures, review of instrumentation and the solution
of common problems encountered in these scientific fields”. The
formation meeting was a success and the participants decided to form an
association to be named the Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners
(AFTE). The officers elected to lead the association were: President
Walter J. Howe, Wilton, CT (now retired); Secretary John C. Stauffer,
Chicago Police Department Crime Laboratory, Chicago, IL (now deceased);
and Charles M. Wilson, Wisconsin State Crime Laboratory, Madison, WI (now
deceased). The first official publication of the association was AFTE
Newsletter Number 1, published on May 15, 1969 (the name of the newsletter
was subsequently changed to the AFTE Journal in 1972). From the original
thirty-five participants, the number of members continued to grow as
information concerning the newly created association reached other firearm
and toolmark examiners. Specific credit should be given to two individuals
who were very instrumental in the formation of AFTE: Burton D. Munhall,
H.P. White Laboratory, Maryland (now deceased) and Walter J. Howe, Wilton,
CT.
1970 - 1999
In 1970, and each
subsequent year to date, the Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners
(AFTE) has hosted an Annual Training Seminar at a location throughout the
United States and Canada. The meeting site is based on both having members
volunteer to host the meeting as well as the needs of the members of the
association as determined by the Board of Directors. One primary purpose
of the annual seminars is to provide for the interchange of information as
it relates to all aspects of the science of firearms and toolmark
identification.
In 1974, the
Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) hosted its 5th
Anniversary Annual Training Seminar in Washington, DC. Some 87
individuals, representing three countries, attended the seminar.
In 1975, due to
continuing controversy surrounding the killing of Senator Kennedy, a
petition by Paul Schrade (one of the shooting victims) and CBS, Inc., (a
nation-wide television broadcaster) was made to the Superior Court of
California, County of Los Angeles, requesting that the firearms evidence
be reexamined. The court granted the petition and ordered that a panel be
formed to conduct the reexamination. The American Academy of Forensic
Sciences (AAFS) and the Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners
(AFTE) were contacted and requested to submit names of firearms examiners
to the Attorney General (senior law enforcement official) of the State of
California. All interested parties were allowed to participate in the
selection of members for the panel and the then Presiding Judge ordered
that the following members serve on the panel. The seven member panel
included the following individuals: Cortlandt Cunningham, FBI Laboratory
Firearms Unit — Washington, DC (now retired); Stanton 0. Berg,
Independent Firearms Examiner — Minneapolis, MN; Alfred A. Biasotti,
California DOJ Crime Laboratory — Sacramento (deceased); Lowell W.
Bradford, Santa Clara County Crime Laboratory - San Jose, CA (now
retired); Professor Ralph Turner, Michigan State University - Lansing, MI
(deceased); Charles V. Morton, Private Crime Laboratory - Oakland, CA; and
Patrick V. Garland, Commonwealth of Virginia Crime Laboratory — Norfolk,
VA (now retired). After a thorough examination of the firearms evidence by
each panel member individually, they collectively reported to the court
that their examination of the evidence revealed that ‘there is not
evidence to indicate that more than one gun was used to fire the items
examined”.
In late 1977, and
during a major portion of 1978, a distinguished panel of firearms experts
reexamined firearms related evidence pertaining to the following previous
investigations:
-
The
assassination of President John F. Kennedy,
-
The
murder of Police Officer J. D. Tippit,
-
The
murder of Lee Harvey Oswald, and
-
The
assassination of Doctor Martin Luther King, Jr.
The reexaminations
of the firearms related evidence was due to increasing public pressure for
additional answers into the events cited. In response to public demands,
the United States House of Representatives assembled the Select Committee
on Assassinations for the purpose of conducting analysis of the firearms
related evidence. After their reexamination of the evidence, the panel
presented testimony before the Select Committee investigating the
assassinations of President Kennedy and Doctor King, and the murders of
Officer Tippit and Mr. Oswald. The panel consisted of several
distinguished members of the Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners
(AFTE). The panel included the following members: Monty C. Lutz, Wisconsin
State Crime Laboratory — Milwaukee; Donald E. Champagne, Florida State
Crime Laboratory —Tallahassee (now retired); John S. Bates, New York
State Police Laboratory — Albany (now retired); Andy M. Newquist, Iowa
State Crime Laboratory — Des Moines (now retired); Russell M. Wilhelm,
Maryland State Police Laboratory —Pikesville (now retired); and George
R. Wilson, Metropolitan DC Police Department Firearms Unit (now retired).
The panel members (except Wilhelm) testified before the Select Committee
in September 1978 concerning their examination of the Kennedy, Tippit and
Oswald evidence. Their written and verbal testimony essentially verified
the findings of the original firearms examiners. The entire panel,
including Wilhelm, testified before the Select Committee in November 1978
concerning their examination of the King evidence. Again, their testimony
essentially verified the findings of the original firearm examiners.
In 1979, the
Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) hosted its 10”’
Anniversary Annual Training Seminar in Milwaukee, WI. 149 individuals,
representing seven countries, attended the annual training seminar.
In the fall of
1980, after a two year pilot project with 44 forensic laboratories
participating, the FBI started providing to the entire forensic community
the General Rifling Characteristic (GRC) file via the National Criminal
Information Center (NCIC). The GRC file, at the time of inception,
provided over 18,000 rifling characteristic measurements. The measurements
— number of lands and grooves, direction of twist, and measurement of
land impressions — were provided by the FBI Laboratory and those
laboratories that provided test fired components for entry into the
system. One of the authors knows a firearms examiner who has provided in
excess of 200 samples, from various recovered firearms, for entry into the
GRC file. The GRC file has been found to be a very useful tool in the
majority of crime laboratories.
In 1980, AFTE
published the AFTE Glossary. The glossary consisted of 219 pages of
definitions and illustrations related to the field of firearm and
tool-mark identification, commonly used abbreviations, various formulas
for determining bullet energy and rate of spin, and useful chemical
formulas. The glossary was the product of the five member AFTE
Standardization Committee, assisted by at least 57 other individuals.
Subsequent to publication of the glossary in 1980, a second more
comprehensive edition was published in 1982. A third edition of the
glossary was published in 1994. This edition featured material from the
first two editions with additional definitions and illustrations; new
appendices which included definitions for computer terminology,
fingernails examination (a toolmark in a biological matrix), knives,
machining terms, gunshot wound terminology, and shooting scene
reconstruction terminology.
In 1982, AFTE
published an official training manual to be used as a modular guide for
the training of firearm and toolmark examiners. It was the intention of
the AFTE Training Committee to develop and provide a modular education
program that could then be tailored to meet the needs of individuals and
their agencies. The training committee, consisting of six experienced
examiners, and aided by numerous other members of the association,
produced a 400 -page manual that has provided an excellent source of
material for assisting in training numerous firearm and toolmark
examiners.
In 1983, another
reexamination of the Sacco-Vanzetti firearms evidence occurred. In the
latest reexamination, a distinguished panel of 4 individuals was assembled
to examine the evidence. The panel consisted of: Dr. Henry C.- Lee,
Anthony L. Paul, Marshall K. Robinson, and George R. Wilson - the last
three all distinguished of the Association of Firearm and Toolmark
Examiners (AFTE). Reexamination of the evidence, and the subsequent
report, was undertaken at the request of Westinghouse Broadcast and Cable,
Inc. (a television company located in Boston, Massachusetts). The
committee’s report validated the original firearms identification
examinations of some 62 years earlier.
In 1984, the
Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) hosted its 15th
Anniversary Annual Training Seminar in Metairie, Louisiana. Some 126
individuals, representing seven countries, attended the seminar.
In 1986, the FBI’s
Forensic Science Research & Training Center (FSRTC), at Quantico, VA
(the FSRTC is part of the FBI Laboratory Division) announced the creation
of a training course for firearms examiners. The course, titled “Specialized
Techniques in Firearms Identification”, was designed for court qualified
examiners and covers a variety of subject matter designed to enhance the
level of proficiency for examiners.
In 1989, the
Association of Firearm and Tool-mark Examiners (AFTE) hosted its 2Oth
Anniversary Annual Training Seminar in Virginia Beach, VA. Some 210
individuals, representing 12 countries, attended the seminar.
In late 1989, in
the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, the FBI Laboratory Division announced
the implementation of a new program — DRUGFIRE. The FBI’s DRUGFIRE is
an electronic data base and computer network that was designed to
digitally capture photographs of fired bullets and cartridge casings for
collation both within the laboratory and those laboratories that also have
the equipment. Today, many forensic laboratories operate DRUGFIRE
equipment with the result that numerous unknown suspect cases have been
linked.
In 1990, the
International Wound Ballistics Association (IWBA) was organized in
California (USA). The formation documents stated the following “It (IWBA)
is comprised of scientists, physicians, criminalist, law enforcement
members, engineers, researchers, and others engaged or interested in the
study of wound ballistics”. Many AFTE members belong to 1WBA and the
official publication of the association — ‘Wound Ballistics Review’
— allows for the timely dissemination of a wide variety of wound
ballistics information.
In 1992, the
Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS) was introduced as
another method of utilizing digital imaging and computer programming to
allow firearms examiners to ‘capture’ images from fired bullets and
cartridge cases for comparison with other images.
In 1993, the United
States Supreme Court changed a legal standard for those that provide
scientific testimony (including expert testimony for firearms and toolmark
identification) in US Federal Courts as well as some state courts. The new
standard, referred to in the United States as the ‘Daubert’ ruling,
required trial judges to be the ‘gatekeepers’ of expert evidence. The
‘Daubert’ court set four criteria (nor all inclusive) by which
scientific testimony must be evaluated before it can be admitted. The
criteria are: 1- testability of scientific principal, 2 -known or
potential error rate, 3 - peer review and publication, and 4 - general
acceptance in a particular scientific community. This ruling has generated
an appreciable amount of discussion within the firearms examiner community
as it essentially requires
that
examiners be able to scientifically explain how they reached their
conclusions. One method of meeting elements of the criteria are to conduct
scientific research and then publish the findings in a peer reviewed
journal such as the AFTE Journal.
In 1994, the
Association of Firearm and Tool-mark Examiners (AFTE) hosted its 25th
Anniversary Annual Training Seminar in Indianapolis, Indiana. Some 300
individuals, representing 21 countries, attended the seminar.
In 1994, a study
titled “Benchmark Evaluation Studies of the Bulletproof and Drugfire
Ballistic imaging Systems” was released by the Office of National Drug
Control Policy (ONDCP), Washington, DC. The study consisted of a technical
evaluation by various individuals, including members of AFTE, and included
recommendations for various actions as outlined by the contractor
performing the study for ONDCP.
In 1996, the
National Institute of Standards (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland, was
directed to provide technical assistance to assist with ‘ballistic
imaging interoperability’ between the Drugfire and IBIS technologies.
In 1996, Tom A.
Warlow published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the
Law and Forensic Ballistics”. Warlow, a senior firearms examiner, then
assigned to the Forensic Science Service (FSS) Laboratory in Huntingdon,
Cambridgeshire, England, is now located at the FSS Laboratory in London,
England. (previously the Metropolitan Police Laboratory of the New
Scotland Yard until it was absorbed by the Forensic Science Services in
1997 in an effort by the government to curtail costs). Warlow has written
a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm and toolmark
examiners.
In 1997, Brian J.
Heard published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of
Firearms and Ballistics — Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.
Heard, a senior firearms examiner is Officer in Charge of the Forensic
Firearms Identification Bureau (FFIB) for the Hong Kong Police Force. (The
current name is now the Hong Kong Police Force as in June 1997, Hong Kong
was handed over by the British Government to the People’s Republic of
China where it is now a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China).
Heard has written a useful text that also contains excellent information
for firearm and toolmark examiners.
In 1997, the
assassination of Dr. King again entered the news. Attorneys working to
exonerate James Earl Ray (now deceased), petitioned the court to reopen
the case. They claimed that ‘new ground-breaking technology’ now
exists which wasn’t available during previous examinations in 1968 and
1977. As stated previously in this article, previous examinations were
conducted in 1968 by firearms examiners of the FBI Laboratory Firearms
Unit and in 1977 by a panel of firearms examiners who testified before the
Select Committee of the House of Representatives. Ray’s attorneys touted
the ‘new’ technology —Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and fiber
optic lighting — as nor being available to the previous examiners. A
search of literature reveals the use of SEM in firearms identification
research prior to 1972 while a list of equipment used by the King panel
members in 1977 lists fiber optics lighting as being part of one of the
comparison microscopes used for the reexamination. The petition to reopen
the case was denied.
In 1998, in the
AFTE Journal (Volume 30, Number 1), articles were published that were the
result of some excellent research concerning both criteria for
identification studies and striae reproducibility on a firearms barrel.
These articles and one concerning meeting the Daubert challenge (a
judicial notice for many of the forensic sciences in the United States)
are part of an ongoing process by members of AFTE to fully articulate the
science behind their field of firearm and toolmark identification.
In 1999, in late March
and early April, several members of the Association of Firearm and
Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) participated as members of the ‘Angoff
Committee. This committee was formed to provide validation of the testing
methodology to be used as part of an ongoing certification study process.
In 1999, the Association of
Firearms and Tool-marks Examiners (AFTE) celebrates its 30th
Anniversary as an association. AFTE is conducting the Annual Training
Seminar which is being held being held in Williamsburg, Virginia. The
current membership of AFTE numbers approximately 850 members, technical
advisors and subscribers that represent over 40 countries from around the
world.
AFTE Newsletters
(Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE)), Newsletter
(Numbers 1 through 20) published from early 1969 until mid-1972.
AFTE Journal
(Association of Firearm and Tool-mark Examiners (AFTE)), Journal (Volume
4, Number 3, through Volume 31, Number 1, Winter 1999), published from
August 1972 through Winter (January/March) 1999.
AFTE Glossary
(Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE)), 1st Edition
published in 1980, 2nd Edition published in 1985, 3rd Edition
published in 1994.
AFTE Training
Manual (Association of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE)), 1st Edition
published in 1982.
Hatcher, Julian S.,
‘Textbook of Firearms Investigation, Identification and Evidence’,
Small-Arms Technical Publishing Company, Plantersville, South Carolina,
1935.
Hastings,
MacDonald., ‘The Other Mr. Churchill — A Lifetime of Shooting and
Murder’, Dodd, Mead & Company, New York, 1963.
‘The Story of the
FBI’, Editors of Look Magazine, E.F. Dutton & Co., New York, New
York, 1947.
Gunther, J.D.,
& Gunther, C.O., ‘The Identification of Firearms’, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, New York 1935.
Burrard, Major Sir
G., ‘The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics’ A. S.
Barnes and Co., New York, New York, 1st Am Ed, 1962.
Arther, R.0.. ‘The
Scientific Investigator’, Charles C. Thomas — Publisher, Springfield,
Illinois, 1970.
McCallum, J.D., ‘Crime
Doctor’, The Writing Works, Inc., Mercer Island, Washington, 1978.
Vollmer, A., &
Parker, A.E., ‘Crime, Crooks & Cops’, Funk & Wagnalls, New
York, New York, 1937.
Davis, J.E., ‘An
Introduction to Toolmarks, Firearms and the Striagraph’, Charles C.
Thomas —Publisher, Springfield, Illinois, 1958.
Coates, Colonel J.B.,
Editor in Chief, ‘Wound Ballistics’, Office of the Surgeon General,
Department of the Army, Washington, DC, 1962.
Crossman, E.C., ‘The
Book of the Springfield’, Small-Arms Publishing Company, Marines, North
Carolina, 1932.
Smith. Sir S., ‘Mostly
Murder’, Dorset Press, New York, New York, 1959.
Loth, D., ‘Crime
Lab - Science Turns Detective’, Julian Messner, Inc., New York, New
York, 1964.
Heard, B.J., ‘Handbook
of Firearms and Ballistics - Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence’,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., West Sussex, UK, 1997.
Warlow, T.A., ‘Firearms,
the Law and Forensic Ballistics’, Taylor & Francis, Inc., Bristol,
Pennsylvania, 1996.
Hatcher, J.S.,
Jury, F.J., & Weller, J., ‘Firearms Investigation, Identification
and Evidence’, The Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1957.
Deming, R., ‘The
Police Lab at Work’, The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., New York, New
York, 1967.
Gaute, J.H.H., and
Odell, R., ‘The New Murderers’ Who’s Who’. Headline Book
Publishing PLC, London, UK, 1989.
Kirk, P.L., ‘Crime
Investigation — Physical Evidence and the Police Laboratory’,
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, New York, 1953.
Simpson, K., ‘Forty
Years of Murder — An Autobiography’, Dorset Press, New York, New York,
1978.
Kirk, P.L. and
Bradford, L.W., ‘The Crime Laboratory — Organization and Operation’,
Charles C. Thomas Publishers, Springfield, Illinois, 1965.
Dilworth, D.C.
(Editor), ‘Silent Witness — The Emergence of Scientific Criminal
Investigations’, International Association of Chiefs of Police,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1977.
Turner, W.W., ‘Hoover’s
FBI - The Men and the Myth’, Sherbourne Press, Inc., Los Angeles,
California, 1970.
American Academy of
Forensic Sciences (AAFS) - publishes the Journal of Forensic Sciences 6
times yearly. Includes articles of interest to all forensic specialties with
a few articles on firearm and toolmark identification. Inquires may be
addressed to American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 410 N. 21st Street
(Suite 203), P0 Box 669, Colorado Springs, Colorado (USA) 80901-0669.
Association of
Firearm and Toolmark Examiners (AFTE) - publishes the AFTE Journal 4 times
yearly. All articles are related to the science of firearm & toolmark
examination and identification. Inquires may be addressed to: Association
of Firearm and Toolmark Examiners, do Lannie Emanuel, SW Institute of
Forensic Science, P0 Box 35728. Dallas, Texas (USA) 75235.
International Wound
Ballistics Association (IWBA) publishes the Wound Ballistics Review
Journal 4 times yearly. Articles are primarily related to ammunition
performance, wound ballistics, and crime scene reconstruction. Inquires
may be addressed to International Wound Ballistics Association, P0 Box
701, El Segundo, California 90245 (USA).
British Forensic
Science Society (FSS) - publishes Science and Justice 4 times yearly.
Includes articles of interest to all forensic specialties with a few
articles on firearm and toolmark identification. Inquires may be addressed
to Forensic Science Society, Clarke House, 1 8A Mount Parade, Harrogate,
North Yorkshire, HG1 lBX (United Kingdom).
Canadian Society of
Forensic Sciences (CSFS) publishes the CSFS Journal 4 times yearly.
Includes articles of interest to all forensic specialties with a few
articles on firearm and toolmark identification. Inquires may be addressed
to Canadian Society of Forensic Science, Suite 215, Southvale Plaza, 2660
Southvale Crescent, Ottawa, Ontario K1B 4W5 (Canada).
International
Ammunition Association, Inc. (IAA) published the IAA Journal 6 times
yearly. Includes articles related to the collection, history, and
identification of ammunition. Inquires may be addressed to: International
Ammunition Association, 2466 Royal Sr. James, El Cajon, California 92019
(USA).
International
Association for Identification (IAI) publishes the Journal of Forensic
Identification 6 times yearly. Includes articles of interest to all forensic
specialties with a few articles on firearm and toolmark identification.
Inquires may be addressed to International Association for Identification,
2535 Pilot Knob Road (Suite 117), Mendota Heights, Minnesota 55120-1120
(USA).
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